Racism and Culture - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 750 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2019/02/05 Category Society Essay Level High school Tags: Racism Essay Did you like this example? Eric A. Watts and Robert Wald Sussman are successful authors and known for their passages. They both write an article that explores how racism being used and the origin of racism. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Racism and Culture" essay for you Create order The Color of Success is an article written by Eric A. Watts, and The Myth of Race written by Robert Wald both articles explore the history and the modern day of racism. Eric A. Watts explores how the black community destroying themselves by calling success, study or wants to progress in schools and having jobs considering as acting white. In addition, Wald Sussman explores how science shows the fact that racism is not in human nature it’s a learning behavior. In the article Watts express how The black community victimizing themselves. He uses examples from his childhood education when many of his black peers would call him out for acting white. Anytime he in a group of black speaking proper English and want to study or want to succeed in school and speak properly, they would consider him as â€Å" acting white†. Wald explores the fact how people been thaught and how to interpret and understand racism. For the past 500 years â€Å" we have been told that there are very specific things that relate to race, such as intelligence, sexual behaviors, birth rates, infants care, work ethics and abilities, personal restraint, lifespan, law-cohesion, and even brain size.† In Wald Susman article he demonstrates everything Watts friend think of him been to them by society the moment there was born to this day. We learned that some races are better than others because we are born into a racist society and our life ordered by this struct ure. Watts experience racism from his own race and confused by it. Furthermore, One of Watts friends stated that Justified dropping out of school and failing to look for a job on that basis of one factor: the cold, heartless, white power structure. These statements about his friend are used to show his reader that many Blacks exaggerate the racism that discriminates against them and uses it as an excuse to act victimized. Black people creating racism among themselves because going to school, looking for a job, is considered as ‘Acting White’. Society makes them believe success in life is white people thing, not black. Robert Sussman explores how race emerged as a social construct from early biblical justifications to the pseudoscientific studies of today. Racial prejudice and intolerance based on the myth of race remain deeply ingrained in this world. His friend believes just because the white man looking them down so, therefore, it gave him an excuse to not try and find a job at all. With these kinds of mindset, black people would ne ver be able to elevate. If you can not be successful unless you believe that you can be. In the article, Watts also share a story of how his friend thought crack was the only options he got in life because they didnt believe in any other options. Based on Sussman article, Biological races do not exist and never have. â€Å" I am not going to dwell upon all of the scientific information that has been gathered by the anthropologists, biologists, geneticists, and other scientists concerning the fact that there are no such things as human biological races.† Sussman attempts to prove that ‘race’ is a biological reality and racism is a cultural invention. Also, Eric Watts confronted the idea of people of his race being preposterous. He shed a light on how people can be stereotypical and prejudice. When mentioning studying to someone he knew, Eric was derided as acting white. Watts finds his friends view of him as ‘acting white’ is offensive, and how people state of mind sounds ignorant and seemed so poor. His friends were acting stereotypically toward him because they felt that his valued- hard work, initiative, articulateness did not fit an African American student. His friends believe watts shoul d not look at as smart or an intellectual, but â€Å"acting white† because of that, he was labeled as somebody trying to be something he wasnt. Sussman argues the racial identification that emerged during the 1960s, and that still persists. This damage is terrible to some black adolescents that still believe being successful, want to succeed in school, having a job and speak properly as â€Å"acting white†. Black people act this way because they doubt their own their own abilities and because they normally visualize whites as people who are mildly interested in keeping blacks down.

Lev Vladimirovich Kuleshov and The Moscow Film School Essay

When film first started gaining popularity, it want’s as obvious that be connecting two different images, we would assume their relation. Film simply document events that occurred, it wasn’t until the enterprising pioneers of early cinema took hold that they began to manipulate their audience into following a story their way and feeling it in those exact steps. Lev Vladimirovich Kuleshov a Soviet filmmaker and film theorist in the 1920s who taught at and helped establish the world’s first film school, the Moscow Film School. He was one of the very first film theorists and one the great pioneers of early editing regarded amongst worldwide filmmaker and he is famous for what became known as Soviet Montage. From Kuleshov perspective, the†¦show more content†¦This is order to show how editing changes viewer’s interpretations of images and how film uses psychology. Kulsehov experimented with this and achieved the Kulsehov theory. This technique is known as juxtaposition, one the most effective tools on cinema just by juxtaposing a variety of concepts one can get a funny joke across, or complete lie across the audience. Kuleshov coined the term collective geography to describe cinema ability to link entirely unrelated material into coherent sequences. This discovery provided filmmakers with arms of varies techniques to manipulate the audience but in this they also recognized the audience has an active in creating meaning. Kuleshov was not just concerned with editing; he believed that the key to effective filmmaking was in organization. In addition to his theoretical work, Kulsehov was also a director of many feature films and he was a leader in Soviet montage theory, which was an approach to understanding and creating cinema that relies heavily upon editing. Some consider Kulsehov the father of Soviet Cinema, having been the first to publish about the formal possiblites of the medium and the power of montage editing. A montage is French for assembly or edit, it involves pieces of footage to make a film. During the Russian Revolution Kuleshov documented the war on the Eastern Front in documentary on the Red Front in the 1920s. Around that time, Kuleshov was deeply impressed and

Pablo picasso and marcel duchamp Free Essays

Pablo Picasso Marcel Decamp Pablo Picasso is one of the most influential artists of the 20th century. He was born in Spain but worked mainly in France, where he became the most well-known artist of his time. Picasso massive output of paintings, sculptures, drawings, prints and ceramics was inspired by many different sources. We will write a custom essay sample on Pablo picasso and marcel duchamp or any similar topic only for you Order Now In the early sass, Picasso developed a movement that signified him, it was known as â€Å"cubism†. This movement marked the beginning of modernism. Marcel Decamp has been known for his rebellious ideas and actions in the 20th century. He was born in France but moved to the USA, and became a US citizen in 1955. His works were known as â€Å"Ready-made†. Duchess’s ready-made changed what art meant. He bought elements that would never have been regarded as art. Some people saw it as less art and more â€Å"putting together†. This movement was called â€Å"Dadaism†. This essay will discuss two artworks; â€Å"The Weeping Woman† – by Pablo Picasso, and, â€Å"The Shovel† – by Marcel Decamp. â€Å"The Weeping Woman† is a famous work by Pablo Picasso and holds a lot of meaning. Picasso painted this work in 1937 after a town of Querying was bombed. The artwork holds a lot of symbolic meaning and was inspired by the events of that point in time – the Spanish Civil War. The artwork focuses on the main victims of the attack – the women. The artwork is full of emotions and grief which is expressed through the use of thick lines and different colors. The work is basically the face of a crying woman. The woman was said to be Dora Mar, whom Picasso described as â€Å"always weeping†. She was his close agent when he was most involved with politics. The focus of the structure is the rough area of hard blue and white forms around the out and teeth, clamped violently on a handkerchief; the flesh seems to have been peeled away by acidic tears to reveal hard white bone and the handkerchief she stuffs in her mouth is like a shard of glass. Her eyes are expressed as black holes. As the eye travels up the artwork, we can see that the eyes and forehead are also broken and disordered, and the woman appears literally ‘broken up’ with grief. The roughness of the forms is backed-up by the roughness of the colors. The face, neck and hand are painted in an acid, inconsistent yellow and violet and green. These colors may represent decay and decomposition. The yellow and violet however, are opposite colors, as are the blue and orange-red of the woman’s hat. Furthermore, the background is painted in strong yellows, contrasting with the blues of the hat and the blues and violets of the hair. The inconsistent color scheme intensifies the impact of the painting. The Weeping Woman is a study of how much pain can be communicated by a human face. The artwork translates the human emotions by paint. Picasso intention was for the viewers to feel the pain when viewing the painting. Marcel Duchess’s artwork, the shovel, is very different compared to Picasso work. At first sight, it could easily be misinterpreted into being an everyday object kept in almost all homes. A person would not know it as art and would be confused to see it in an art gallery or museum. â€Å"Shovel† was the first Redeemed to be made by Decamp in 1915, after his move to the United States. The Shovel may seem important and artistic to Marcel because no such object existed in France (from where he came). This shows that the shovel was nothing extraordinary to the citizens of the US, who would later be the viewers of the artwork, but something unfamiliar to he artist, therefore, an element of art in his sense. The original shovel was bought from a corner store from where Marcel lived. However, after his move, it was thrown away by his sister. Marcel replicated it and along its lower rim, he wrote the phrase: â€Å"In Advance of the Broken Arm/ (from) Marcel Decamp 1915†. It is stated that the â€Å"from† in the phrase conveys that the object came from the artist, but was not made by him. According to the artist, the phrase written on the shovel is the main color to the artwork. It’s a play on words. The phrase refers playfully to the function f a snow shovel which is to remove snow from the ground. Duchess’s title shows that without the shovel to remove the snow, one might slip and fall and even break an arm. Marcel Duchess’s artworks show that there is no difference between an artwork and an everyday object. The shovel could easily be mistaken for a simple shovel if it were not suspended from the ceiling in a museum. Therefore, the location and position of the artwork stands as a critical part of the piece. Pablo Picasso Weeping Woman can be looked at under the subjective frame as it is basically all bout human emotions and feelings. The main subject of the artwork is the broken face of the woman. By looking at the artwork, one can feel the pain and sorrow that the subject would have been going through. The work can also be placed under the structural frame as the face is made up of geometric shapes and the colors and their tones play a vital role in conveying the message. The cultural frame can also be a part of the work as it is stated that the Mater Dolorous, the weeping Virgin, is a traditional image in Spanish art, often represented in colorful, elaborate sculptures tit glass tears, Just like in the Weeping Woman. As for the Shovel by Marcel Decamp, it can be categorized under the cultural frame as many scholars have seen sexual suggestions in this Redeemed. Some note that the Shovel â€Å"is an obvious phallic symbol† Another once mentioned that the Sanskrit word for shovel is â€Å"langue,† which is almost equal to the term for phallus (â€Å"langue†). In Status-Asiatic languages the same word meaner both â€Å"phallus† and â€Å"shovel. In conclusion, by examining both artists and their artworks, we can see that they are form the same mime period, but hold two opposite views to art. The two artists’ distinct differences represent a central logical and visual opening in the history and development of modern art. While Picasso viewed modern art as a visual experiment, Decamp came to believe that art was about ideas and attitudes. Picasso artwork was a traditional artwork of that time whereas Marcella was more about shifting the views engagement of the works of art from pleasing to the eye to the service of the mind, challenging the traditional notion that beauty is a defining characteristic of art. According to Marcel, wings become art by putting them in places where one expects to find art. Where Picasso expresses his feelings through colors and lines, Marcel expresses it through words and phrases. Where Picasso makes his artwork, Marcel â€Å"buys† them and plays around with them. Picasso works are made on a canvas and the painting is the crucial part however, with Marcella artwork, only the placement and position of the artwork is crucial and defines it as a work of art. The Shovel is hung from a ceiling in a museum where The Weeping Woman is simply hung on the wall. In the end, both are known as artworks today and are admired. How to cite Pablo picasso and marcel duchamp, Papers

Decolonization of Algeria and Mozambique free essay sample

Decolonization of Algeria and Mozambique Essay Preparation Draft Today, Algeria and Mozambique are independent countries in Africa, but before that, since the early 1900’s and earlier, both countries were under colonial rule. Before Algeria and Mozambique gained their independence as a country, Algeria was under the French rule, while Mozambique was under Portuguese rule. However, eventually in 1962, Algeria gained its independence and in 1974 Mozambique gained its independence. In terms of the process of decolonization, Algeria and Mozambique went through a similar process, that was successful due to the failures of the colonial powers to satisfy and control their settler population socially, economically and politically, which resulted into successful organized rebellion actions. Referring back to the pre-call for independence, the Algerians and Mozambique settler population felt that they were being mistreated by their colonial power. In Algeria even since 1942, according to the West Chester University, the French were mistreating the Algerians by taking over â€Å"French-owned† farms and forcing the Algerian ex workers to work for them. We will write a custom essay sample on Decolonization of Algeria and Mozambique or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page At the end of WW2, the Vichy French government increased taxes, specifically for the Algerians and implemented â€Å"racial policies†, that favored the French. Similarly, Mozambique’s were discriminated, as the Portuguese deprived with lack of education, lack of political justification and very â€Å"cheap wages†. Despite both Algeria and Mozambique being treated unfairly socially, economically and politically, on May 8, 1945, the Algerians celebrated the end of WW2, by marching in Setif, but the Algerians raised â€Å"the green and white flag† of Abd al Kader’s 1840 uprising, which angered the French, causing violence and resulting in 45,000 deaths. Being unfairly treated, the Algerians and Mozambique’s called for independence. Algeria and Mozambique’s call and war for independence were a result of creating large organized rebellion groups, however, each country’s political aim was different. As for Algeria, on October 1952, Ahmen Ben Bella an Algerian rebellious soldier formed the Revolutionary Committee of Unity and Action, which was later known as the National Liberation Front (FLN) on 1962. The FLN was responsible for the â€Å"political direction of the revolution. † The sole purpose of the FLN was to â€Å"acquire arms, supplies, and funds† for the commanders and gain independence. Similarly, on June 1962, the Mozambique formed the FRELIMO liberation movement, which was lead by Eduardo Mondlane. Unlike Algeria, FRELIMO was vastly supported by â€Å"communist† nations, primarily Soviet Union, East Germany and Cuba by receiving military aid, such as â€Å"shipments of 122mm artillery rockets in 1972. † Therefore, during the war for independence in Mozambique, was a cold war element, in which the communist nations saw Mozambique as an opening to advocate communism spread. Hence, Mozambique was disrupted by other nation’s political aims efforts of anti-imperialist, towards spreading communism. Through the war for independence, Algeria and Mozambique would eventually gained independence. At the end, Algeria and Mozambique gained independence, however each country’s colonial efforts of letting go, was different. Speaking of Algeria, the war for independence lasted from 1953 to 1962, about 9 years. On the other hand, Mozambique lasted from 1962 to 1974, about 12 years. Algeria gained independence, as the FLN was too powerful and resulted in â€Å"hundreds of thousands of deaths. † It was reported that, â€Å"kidnapping was a common place† as there were murders of captured French and Muslims, regardless of age and sex. Portugal at the same time tired to hold on with military efforts, as troop numbers rose to 24,000 and more. Differently, Portugal from the 1960’s to 1970’s attempted to counter the FRELIMO with the use of government propaganda by creating â€Å"roads, railways, bridges, dams, irrigation systems, schools, hospitals. † However in the end, on July 1962 Algeria gained independence, with 350,000 colons leaving the country and 1. 4 million more the next year and counting. Meanwhile, on June 1975, Portuguese handed over the power to the FRELIMO. In conclusion, Algeria and Mozambique were both very similar to the process of decolonization, as both countries’ settler population was unsatisfied by the treatment that they’re colonial power, socially, economically and politically. Reflecting back, the most common similarity that both countries had was the creation of large rebellion groups to overpower the colonial power, which were both successful, despite the violence. Therefore, the overarching reason why both countries lost their colonial power was because of their actions.

The Driving Way Essay Research Paper Selecting free essay sample

The Driving Way Essay, Research Paper Choosing a calling way is the easiest determination one can do ; I have chosen five in the nine old ages since high school. The job is choosing a way and following it to completion. When I returned to school for my most recent calling way, I worked difficult and did good for the first several months. Then, I started remaining out tardily with a immature lady, and the sum of clip that I applied to school decreased by an order of magnitude. After several hebdomads with her, it was evident that my classs were traveling to be bad. I told my male parent that I was non making good in school, and that I was traveling to discontinue school to work full clip once more. He surprised me when he replied, # 8220 ; Do you retrieve the first clip that I let you drive? # 8221 ; Although I mistily remembered the event, I said, # 8220 ; Of class I do. We will write a custom essay sample on The Driving Way Essay Research Paper Selecting or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page # 8221 ; Father so inquire, # 8220 ; Do you still drive every bit ill as you did that twenty-four hours? # 8221 ; Feeling one of the old adult male # 8217 ; s tedious addresss about to get down, I harshly said, # 8220 ; No, what # 8217 ; s your point? # 8221 ; After my scratchy answer, Father shook his caput and started reading a book. Although I did non desire to hear his address, I could non maintain from inquiring what he wanted to state. I thought about the Saturday forenoon that my male parent allow me drive for the first clip. He drove me to a stretch of route so long and straight that you could see it meet in the skyline. He pulled over and tol d me to trade seats with him. Despite being nervous, I wasted no clip acquiring behind the wheel. Shyly, I put the auto in thrust and pulled into the route. Father so said, â€Å"All that you have to make is indicate it consecutive and maintain it between the lines.† With male parent # 8217 ; s advice about driving in head, I carefully lined the auto between the lines and headed down the route. I did good for the first several proceedingss. Then, my head wandered, and I started paying less attending to the route. In a few seconds, I felt a clump and heard the auto hit crushed rock. I overreacted and jerked the wheel ; the auto slid sideways, and all of a sudden we stopped. I was certain that my male parent was traveling to shout about my hapless drive, but he softly said, # 8220 ; Son, allow me clear up my advice to you. It is non merely about get downing in the right way and so burying what you are making. It is about ever paying attending to where you are and where you want to be. It is about doing elusive corrections ; if a rectification is to large, it will ever direct you out of control. # 8221 ; After I pondered the old adult male # 8217 ; s driving advice, I decided non to discontinue school. I stopped seeing the immature lady, and dropped two categories # 8212 ; which left clip for me to concentrate on my staying categories. Because of the rectification, I finished the semester on the dean # 8217 ; s list. Almost one twelvemonth has passed since so, and I am still traveling down the same way ; I pay attending and do minor corrections when corrections are needed.

Free Essays on Condom Wizard

Condoms So you’re looking for that special condom? A condom that will feel just right, be safe, and have all the right things you are looking for. Well you’re in luck because condoms are available in a wide variety of materials, flavors, and textures. Condoms have various different names. Some people identify them as rubbers, jimmy hats, raincoats, and love gloves. Although they have numerous names they all serve the same purpose. The material that is most commonly used for condoms is latex rubber, but some are made from polyurethane or even animal tissue. Since the latex condom is the most common, it is also the cheapest type. Latex condoms come in different flavors. If the latex condoms rub you in the wrong way or they have been getting under your skin lately you may want to switch to a different material. The alternative to the latex condom is the polyurethane material. It is most typically used by men that have sensitive skin. Another option for latex condoms is the natural skin condom. It is not common for people to use natural skin condoms because they are expensive and they do not protect against disease. If you are like most people, the material the condom is made of is not important to you. The important factor is that it feels good and is safe enough. No need to worry because you have many other options to choose from. If you are looking for a savory, luscious love pop then you can opt for a flavored condom. The different flavors available are banana, bubble gum, butterscotch, cherry, chocolate, coconut, cola, grape, mint, orange, strawberry, vanilla, and last but not least watermelon. Everyone has their own preference, so choose carefully or just mix it up and try all of them. It’s hard to go wrong with so many different flavors available. Another choice that is offered other than flavor is a condom that is capable of glowing in the dark. You can use one of these special types of condoms if you want to wrap your knight... Free Essays on Condom Wizard Free Essays on Condom Wizard Condoms So you’re looking for that special condom? A condom that will feel just right, be safe, and have all the right things you are looking for. Well you’re in luck because condoms are available in a wide variety of materials, flavors, and textures. Condoms have various different names. Some people identify them as rubbers, jimmy hats, raincoats, and love gloves. Although they have numerous names they all serve the same purpose. The material that is most commonly used for condoms is latex rubber, but some are made from polyurethane or even animal tissue. Since the latex condom is the most common, it is also the cheapest type. Latex condoms come in different flavors. If the latex condoms rub you in the wrong way or they have been getting under your skin lately you may want to switch to a different material. The alternative to the latex condom is the polyurethane material. It is most typically used by men that have sensitive skin. Another option for latex condoms is the natural skin condom. It is not common for people to use natural skin condoms because they are expensive and they do not protect against disease. If you are like most people, the material the condom is made of is not important to you. The important factor is that it feels good and is safe enough. No need to worry because you have many other options to choose from. If you are looking for a savory, luscious love pop then you can opt for a flavored condom. The different flavors available are banana, bubble gum, butterscotch, cherry, chocolate, coconut, cola, grape, mint, orange, strawberry, vanilla, and last but not least watermelon. Everyone has their own preference, so choose carefully or just mix it up and try all of them. It’s hard to go wrong with so many different flavors available. Another choice that is offered other than flavor is a condom that is capable of glowing in the dark. You can use one of these special types of condoms if you want to wrap your knight...

Dubliners by James Joyce Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Dubliners by James Joyce - Essay Example The paralysis may also relate to the extent of the technology of the place especially in the twenty first century. In order to elaborate on this claim, the exercise will elaborate various characterizations from the various stories. All the stories in the Dubliners are connected by common themes such as corruption, paralysis and death. These render the characters stationary and incapable of moving forth and developing their status. Instead, the characters move forth in some instances and retreat afterwards causing an endless circle. The first story, The Sisters, majors on a boy and his mentor called Father Flynn. The priest has been mentoring the boy and the boy has advanced in his thinking and behaviour. His uncle tells him the weaknesses of his mentor and convinces him never to associate with him again (Tagleri 15). He informs the boy that the priest had suffered a third stroke and had made a confession on his condition. When the boy is eventually informed of Father Flynn’s death, he feels less sad. The boy observes the brown and yellow teeth of the deceased, implying a decay and static development and epitomizes their confinement. In this case, the society is well convinced of the priest’s demerits to the society through his paralysis and the eventual death. The boy feels freedom from the compulsions of the priest. The boy fails to progress due to his adherence to the notions from the society members. This is a story of two boys that also depict paralysis in the society and individual sexuality. The story illustrates two boys during their adventure and the chase of a wild cat. They encounter a man who starts by asking them of the books they have read. The boys begin to think of positivity of the man due to his thinking on books. The stranger then inquires about their girlfriends. The man goes ahead to masturbate before the boys. This is a greater extent of paralysis of morals (Papadopoulou 32). The boys are t

Thatchers concept organizational rhetoric and the use of corporate we Essay

Thatchers concept organizational rhetoric and the use of corporate we on remarks on the passing of Ronald Reagan successfully demonstrated the significance o - Essay Example Thatcher also states that "We live today in the world that Ronald Reagan began to reshape with those words." She uses the decentering of self to illustrate the importance of Reagan to the people. Thatcher's use of Aristotelian proof and "corporate we" in her speech successfully demonstrated the significance of Reagan in every American's life. In the entire speech from Thatcher she states that with ending the Cold War as the big success and achievement from Reagan, you read between the lines that it also ended Communism. The fear for Communism itself however goes back in time right after WW II. The US represented the Capital West and the Soviet Union was the leading superpower of the Communist East. The roots where made are not easy to be changed in acceptance from both parties. The historical importance of the summits between the both parties formed the basic to a new world where the tension between the Capital West and the Communist East was ceased. Ronald Reagan did, in fact, brought the United States of America to the end of the most difficult period in our modern times. Thatcher is right when she states in her speech (2004) that Reagan had an outstanding sense of humor and ability in creating friendships with almost anybody. He turned our Cold War enemy, the soviets, into our friend. Thatcher shows that Reagan took u s out of our most difficult time and reestablished our economics. He also turned our enemy into allies. These show the effective use of logos under the Aristotelian proofs. On the remarks of the passing of Ronald Reagan the conclusion to be made is that Reagan was President at the right time and his personal character made it happen that both parties started to negotiate. Reagan was open minded. New York Times (2004) It was Mr. Reagan's good fortune that during his time in office the Soviet Union was undergoing profound change, eventually to collapse, setting off a spirited debate over Mr. Reagan's role in ending the cold war. His supporters argued that his tough policies were the coup de grace and his detractors attributed the end to the accumulated influence of 45 years of the American policy of containment. But wherever the credit was due, the thaw came on his watch. Gorbachev explains all this in the Washington Post (2004) But if he had warm, appreciative words for Reagan, Gorbachev brusquely dismissed the suggestion that Reagan had intimidated either him or the Soviet Union, or forced them to make concessions. Was it accurate to say that Reagan won the Cold War "That's not serious," Gorbachev said, using the same words several times. "I think we all lost the Cold War, particularly the Soviet Union. We each lost $10 trillion," he said, referring to the money Russians and Americans spent on an arms race that lasted more than four decades. "We only won when the Cold War ended." The fact that President Reagan's intelligent has greatly affected the United States of America. Thatcher states that "Ronald Reagan knew his own mind. He had firm principles and, I believe, right ones. He expounded them clearly. He acted upon them decisively. When the world threw problems at the White House, he was not baffled or disorientated or overwhelmed." These examples demonstrated the effective the use of ethos under the Aristotelian proof which made the speech successful. In Thatcher's speech, she didn't only use the

An Instrument - Reliable and Validity Assignment

An Instrument - Reliable and Validity - Assignment Example A measurement may be reliable but need not be valid. Nevertheless, measurement has to be reliable before it can be valid. A tool should be reliable and should be suitable for measuring the intended object. In designing a research project it is absolutely necessary that the measurements are both reliable and valid. If it is not so the tools of measurement are basically useless for measuring what the researcher wanted to measure. 2. Almost daily, we hear about research that seems to contradict earlier findings. One day, for example, a particular food is good for you and the next it is not. What does this reflect about the scientific method What are the advantages and disadvantages of the scientific method It is very true that we find research to support or to conclusively oppose something. For any study that puts forward a recommendation, there is another one that is apparently researched and documented and challenging the conclusions of the first. There is no convergence in the points of view of people. This does not invalidate the scientific method. There could may many possibilities for this divergence. Perhaps a researcher may not have used the valid tools for testing. The tools themselves may not have been reliable. The test conditions may not have been the same in all cases.   It insists on systematic experimentation. Scientists have developed criteria and practices to reduce the individual and social bias on scientific findings. The basic approach is an experiment, observation, and inference. It approaches reality objectively. However, our five senses might even play tricks on us. That is why theories of Ptolemy were later replaced by the theories of Copernicus. Some times more efficient tools to observe reality will be developed which give more data, hitherto unavailable. The use of an electron microscope has unraveled new insights into cell and modern cell biology is entirely different from what it was fifty years ago. 3. Suppose you wish to measure the effect of physical exercise on self-esteem. What type of experimental design would be most appropriate to Describe the types of groups necessary for this design? How would you measure your variables Which threats to internal validity would you need to consider The available evidence indicates that exercise not only benefits by providing a healthier body but also enhancing self-esteem. However, this has to be proved by empirical evidence. Visitors to a fitness center would be the ideal group to test the validity of this thesis.  

Dirt bikes usa

Dirt bikes usa Introduction The small company Dirt Bikes USA based out of Colorado is planning to look for more ways to grow in the economy of the motorcycle industry. They are skeptical and worried about expenses and how they are going to obtain information to provide a solution efficiently. Dirt Bikes USA will go through a transformation on running their business more efficiently. With my evaluations and help I will decide on what kind of internet tools and technology that will be most effective for the organization and its employees. I will be discussing intranet systems and two other tools for the internet that can be provided for the organization. I also intend on discussing the benefits in using wireless technology and the kind of impacts it will have on the organization. The tools that will be utilized will have benefits for the organization as well. The cost efficiency of wireless networks versus the cost of wired networks will also be discussed to give the organization an option of using a more cost ef fective system. This will reveal the pros of wireless networks and the cons of wired networks. Recommendations   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I recently have just evaluated the organization of Dirt Bikes USA and have come up with recommendations on solving problems. While Dirt Bikes USA already offers their employees internet with desktop computers it would be helpful to establish a private network through using the organizations existing network infrastructure combined with connectivity standards of the internet and software made for the World Wide Web (WWW). Laudon and Laudon (2009), states that intranets are private networks created by the use of internet networking standards and web technology. With the use of intranets it is secure and private and has a firewall for protection, which helps prevent unauthorized users from accessing the network. WWW and intranet software technology are similar to each other. Intranet Benefits   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  While having access to information with the touch of a button can be very important in the marketing and sales department. There are many benefits received by the marketing and sales department using an intranet. These benefits are having access to the following: researching of competitors, information of products, reports on sales, and marketing analysis.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The human resource department can benefit extremely from the use of intranet because they could cutback on the usage of paper. The department could start uploading all of the company applications, company handbooks, company benefit package, and much more that will lead to saving the money normally spent on large amounts of paper.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The manufacturing and production department of the company will benefit from the use of intranet by keeping track of the schedules of production while helping maintain and coordinate production. They can keep track of all their inventory of parts in and out of stock through the intranet. If the organization were to upgrade the intranet to an extranet suppliers would know when parts are needed for the company and customers could place their orders to the suppliers if needed. Helpful Tools   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout my investigation I found that as a minimum there are two other tools for the internet that will be useful for the employees at Dirt Bikes. The first internet tool is a Voice over IP (VOIP) phone system. According to Laudon and Laudon (2009), with the use of a (VOIP) phone system it could help lower the companys cost of communications by 20 to 30 percent. A VOIP phone system is a popular platform for corporate networking and voice transmission. I would suggest having more than one telecommunications and computer service infrastructure to save on long distance phone calls and even get rid of private lines, but having one of each of the infrastructures is needed to offer tremendous savings for Dirt Bikes organization in communications.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Another tool for the organization would be the Apple iPad. With the iPad the organization can create formatted documents, spreadsheets with charts and formulas. The iPad also connects over Wi-Fi connection and 3G services so you can email photos to your clients and find out on the internet recent news on the competitors. Its a great tool to have around the shop instead of going back to your office to type an email you can type an email write in the power of your hands. Wireless Access   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I believe that it is important for Dirt Bikes USA to install wireless networks, which would allow wireless internet access to the employees and also provide the company with the capabilities of having voice data communications. By having Dirt Bikes USA install wireless internet it will lead the organization in profit increase while also saving employees time. Besides voice communications, technology has grown where cell phones are now capable of sending information through instant messaging and e-mails. Cell phones are also now capable of searching or researching information on the WWW. The use of cell phones could help the outsiders of the organization with access to information from just about anywhere.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  With the use of Bluetooth in the organization is another way of using wireless networks. A Bluetooth is a wireless device that allows wireless phones, printers, and computers to communicate with each other with the least amount of power needed to function. Having lower power to function would make a Bluetooth best used with handheld computers, personal data assistants, and cell phones. Wired Networks versus Wireless Networks   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I believe for Dirt Bikes USA wireless networks are they way to go and they way of the future because an employee can have access to the internet from anywhere in the building, while wired networks limits you to a specific docking station or office. The only benefit of a wired network is that they work faster with larger files to upload and can tend to be more reliable than wireless networks. Wireless networks sometimes have problems with signal strength while wired networks do not unless a wire happens to become loosened. With the use of wireless networks it would be a fraction of the cost to have installed, compared to the wired networks because of all of the wires need to be ran throughout the building. The bottom line is that the use of a wireless network would be more cost effective for the organization. Conclusion Throughout my investigation I have determined and recommended many solutions to Dirt Bikes USA would benefit from. Using intranet systems in your organization would benefit the following departments: Manufacturing and production, human resources, and sales and marketing. In my determination I have also presented two more internet tools that if used would be valuable to the organization. The two internet tools that were presented are VPN and the Apple iPad. With the use of these tools it will be cost effective for the organization. I have also brought attention to wireless networks technology and the influence it will have on the organization. I compared the cost effective advantages of the use of wireless networks compared to wired networks to be considered by management. My analysis will help in saving the organization a lot of money, which in return will create higher profits for Dirt Bikes USA. References Laudon, Kenneth C., Lauden, Jane P. (2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.). Essentials of Management Information Systems (8th ed).,: Prentice Hall.

International Free Trade and World Peace Essay -- Politics Political S

International Free Trade and World Peace When analyzing trade’s effect on state behavior, it is not the mere existence of trade between countries that should be central, rather, the nature of trade that is crucial. This distinction will be explored by studying the arguments of key economic and political thinkers of both the 18th and 20th centuries. The general nature of trade, the role of national government regarding trade and security, trade's capacity to befriend belligerent nations, and finally, the influence of international economic institutions will be explored. In an attempt to present a fairly broad range of sources, this study features the ideas of four influential authors from two time periods and continents: from the 18th Century, Adam Smith and Alexander Hamilton, and from the 20th Century, John Maynard Keynes and Secretary of State Cordell Hull. My thesis is that the four authors examined actually agreed with one another on the connection between free trade and peace, despite the discordant resonance of their arguments. Due to the nature of trade in Hamilton and Smith's time, their assertions that trade had ambiguous, if not adverse effects on state behavior is equivalent to Hull's statement that trade under the auspices of international organizations ensured peace. Almost all trade, up until the foundation of post-W.W.II international economic bodies, was practiced in an opaque, unfair, and mercantilist manner. Both Keynes and Hull, who argue that trade is pacific, lived in a rapidly liberalizing environment where international organizations were gaining legitimacy and influence. Thus, the conclusion of all four authors can be modified to state that trade is pacific only when it is conducted in an open, fre... ...The Memoirs of Cordell Hull. New York: Macmillan. Keynes, John Maynard. 1919. The Economic Consequences of the Peace. London: Macmillan. ________. 1922. A Revision of the Treaty. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. ______. In: Moggridge, Donald. ed. 1980. The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes: Activities 1941-1946. London: Macmillan. Kramnick, Isaac. ed. 1987. The Federalist Papers. London: Penguin Books. [1788] Moggridge, Donald. ed. 1980. The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes: Activities 1941-1946. London: Macmillan. Raphael, D.D. 1985. Adam Smith. London: Oxford University Press. Smith, Adam. 1766. "Lectures on Jurisprudence." Cited in: An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. ________. 1981. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund. [1776]

Political science Essay

Political federalism is a concept of political philosophy where by member groups are bound with a central governing head. Federalism is also often used in describing a government system that has its sovereignty being divided constitutionally between a central authority of government and political units such as states and provinces. Federalism is the system that involves sharing of the power to govern between state and national governments, hence creating what is commonly known as Federation. The proponents of federalism are referred to as federalists. Democracy is a form of government whereby the basic personal as well as political rights are guaranteed by the constitution. In democracy, the constitution must also guarantee fair and free elections as well as independent law courts. Read more: How does federalism guard against tyranny essay For full democracy to be experienced in any state some basic requirements such as guarantee of basic human rights, separation o powers, freedom of speech, opinion, pres and mass media religious liberty, and good governance must be fulfilled. Federalism enhances democracy and this can well be explained by the public choice theory. It has been clearly argued that individuals are able to participate more and in direct way in the smaller political units as opposed to a unitary government (Elazar 89). In addition, individuals who may be dissatisfied with conditions of a certain smaller state as unit are free to move to another state. This has been believed to promote freedom of movement as well as freedom of expression among the citizens. Promotion and encouragement of such freedom results to enhancement of democracy in a federal system. Moreover, federalism is believed to limit or rather prevent arbitrary action from the entire state, simply by applying the principle of due process. It limits the power that can be exercised by the government and enhance access to the rights by the citizens since it discourages any legislature that wishes to restrict liberties through in access to constitutional power (Elazar 112). Again, the legal process of decision making of federalism limits the speed with which action can be taken by the government. Through federalism the US senators who initially use to be appointed by the legislators of the state are now voted in their seats by the popular vote of each single state. This has enhanced the democracy of the citizens whereby they can now participate in the free and fair elections of their senators. In the United States, federalism is the government system in which power is divided between the government of such state and a central government. The undermining of the federalism by the US constitutions is clearly expresses by the fact that the US constitution is clearly expressed by the fact that the US constitution does not define nor explain the concepts of federalism in any one of its sections (Elazar 54). This was overlooked due to the fact that the states were known to be pre-existing entities. There is also very narrow interpretation of some parts of the constitution such as in the commerce clause, supremacy clause, and the necessary clause. Due to this narrow interpretation, federalism is entitled to jurisdiction only in the constitution grants it. The US constitution also has the power of not delegating to the federal government. The reserved powers are channeled to the people or rather the state. Conclusion. Federalism is an important form of political philosophy that is exercised in several states in the world. It has promoted democracy to a great extend especially in the US where by the citizens have been able to participate in free and fair elections as well as enjoying the freedom of movement and speech within the single states. The US constitution should therefore be reviewed to ensure that it does not underpin federalism. Reference. Elazar J. Exploring Federalism.University of Alabama Press

Thesis Essay On Korn Essays - Korn, Music, Converts To Christianity

Thesis Essay On Korn Essays - Korn, Music, Converts To Christianity Thesis Essay On Korn 1, 2, 3, and I come from the wicked style you know that Im from the wicked crew, act like you knew.... Korn, the mere word means so much to so many people. They are one of the pioneers in todays modern rock world. Theyre also a band that many fans look to with their meaningful lyrics and awesome sound. Korn is by far the best modern rock band in music today due to their music, sound, lives, and performances. Out of the small town of Bakersfield, California, in the early nineties, came a sound. A faint whisper at first, it grew in force and intensity with time, unhindered by the yapping mouths of politicians and parents alike. It rang in their ears. It plagued their minds. It genuinely terrified them. The voice, talking in low-tuned rhythmic tones, spoke for a generation that would have no more of modern America and its leaders. A generation fed-up with lies, violence and greed from their own society. It grew and grew as more and more people realized the veracity of its claims, and adhered to its cause. The politicians grew fearful, and attempted to end its spread by censoring and denouncing. Little did they know that, six years later, that small whisper would grow into a deafening scream, a disturbingly present reminder of its own existence, and of its legions of followers... Led by Jonathan Davis under vocals and bag pipes, Munky under guitars, Head also behind a guitar, Fieldy behind the bass and David Silveria behind the drums. This sound revolutionized todays music. Through Korns lyrics, we hear their lives and what they have gone through. A reason why many people like Korn is because their lives can relate to many peoples because they were never fed with silver spoons, and they had family. social, and personal problems too. I think its real good that, that is who they are and they let people know that they went through the same things as many other people have to go through, and that they arent afraid to say. Which also makes people like them too, because it helps to know that somebody that big went through these things and made it through. And not only made it through but also made it big. Which is good to know because you can look at them and how they set their dreams and than look at your dreams and go for them. Another thing that helps people around here is that theyre local. They came from the same places as we do and they made it in this world. It just shows that it doesnt matter where you come from, it matters if you want it and want to go through the trouble to work for it. That and you can be proud that you can say that somebody that famous comes from around the same place you do. Especially if you like them. Through their music, they tell about real life scenarios, their lives, and other controversial things. I think that people like Korns music for many reasons. I think some like it because its just what other people like it or just because its rock and you cant really like modern rock without liking Korn. which is sad because Korn is such and awesome band. and that its sad to not truly appreciate a band and just like them because its the cool thing to do. Also fans like Korns music because of their lyrics. People like that lyrics because of the way they flow and some people like them because of their maturity or volgerness. Which is sad because you should like any music for that reason. The audience also like the musics meanings. Not just the lyrics meanings because music does not just have meaning by the words in it, but you can find the meaning in the sounds. You can feel anger, happiness, sadness, excited, many emotions through the music. People like this because when youre depressed you can listen to something happy. Or when you need to relate to someone but have no one maybe you can relate to the music, or if youre sad you could listen to a uplifting song or you might want to listen to sad music to relate. The fans are also attracted to their sound. This pioneering sound that came from Bakersfield in 1996 was different from everyone else. They were the first of their kind, the

Differences Between Hindu And Mormon Marriage Religion Essays

Differences Between Hindu And Mormon Marriage Religion Essays Differences Between Hindu And Mormon Marriage Religion Essay Differences Between Hindu And Mormon Marriage Religion Essay Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, besides known as LDS or Mormons, have different imposts and beliefs sing matrimony, compared to members of the Hinduism religion. Three important differences of matrimony within the Hindu and Mormon religions include: how the bride and groom meet before matrimony, the nuptials ceremonial, and the ageless position of their matrimony. Let me reexamine these three important differences in more item. the rite of Brahmana ( Brahma ) , that of the Gods ( Daiva ) , that of the Rishis ( Arsha ) , that of Prajapati ( Prajapatya ) , that of the Asuras ( Asura ) , that of the Gandharvas ( Gandharva ) , that of the Rakshasas ( Rakshasa ) , and that of the Pisakas ( Paisaka ) . ( Manusmrti ( Laws of Manu ) Matthews, p. 21 ) Of these eight types of matrimony, non all of them have spiritual processs and the last four are condemned, such as the Pisakas ( Paisaka ) . The Pisakas is defined below. When a adult male by stealing seduces a miss who is kiping, intoxicated, or disordered in mind, that is the 8th, the most basal and iniquitous rite of the Pisakas. ( From Manusmrti ( Laws of Manu ) Chapter III # 31 ) Although arranged matrimony is on the diminution, it is still, by far, the most common signifier of matrimony in the Hindu Religion. One web site reported that in India 95 % of matrimonies were arranged ( Gibson, p. 1 ) . Arranged matrimony by and large takes topographic point when the parents of the bride and groom find a lucifer for their boy or girl. Some considerations such as instruction, wealth, horoscope, and caste help the parents better take a partner for their boy or girl. Once the seniors and household agree upon likely compatibility of the twosome, they are engaged to be married, sometimes without holding of all time even met. Second, there are differences between the matrimony ceremonial of a Mormon and the matrimony of a Hindu. Although a Mormon can be married lawfully in a tribunal of jurisprudence, the most honest, preferable, and sought after manner of matrimony is being sealed or married in a LDS Temple. The Holy Temple is a sacred edifice where sacred and confidential regulations are performed. Those who enter the temple agree to maintain these processs and regulations sacred and confidential. When the twosome enters the temple, they change into all white apparels and are prepared for the sealing regulation of matrimony. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints does non give permission to unwrap these regulations. The Church advocates: We do non cite the words of the sealing regulation outside of the temple, but we may depict the waterproofing room as being beautiful in its assignment, quiet and calm in spirit, and hallowed by the sacred work that is performed at that place. ( Fixing to Enter the Holy Temple ) Not everyone is permitted to come in an LDS temple. Merely those who have been found worthy can come in. In some instances, one or both parents may non be allowed to come in the temple as they have non been found worthy. It is recommended that merely household and really close friends to the bride and groom are allowed to go to. Marrying groups should be little, consisting merely the members of the two households and some few who are really near to the twosome. A nuptials response is to supply a clip for recognizing the friends and the sympathizers. ( Fixing to Enter the Holy Temple ) Within the Hindu religion, nevertheless, the whole household is involved, and it is a jubilation that can last for hours or yearss. A Hindu nuptials is officiated under a mandap, by a Hindu Priest. Anyone who the household wants to go to is welcome. The ceremonial stages, rites, and words are non confidential. They have deep significance and symbolism for all to witness. The chief colourss of the brides frock are chiefly ruddy and gold. The ceremonial can change from part to part depending where one lives. One of the ceremonial rites for the matrimony includes a fire. The Pratigna-Karan is a portion of the ceremonial where bride and groom circle a fire, bride taking, and do committednesss of trueness, love, and fidelity. Last, the difference between Hindu matrimony and Mormon matrimony is their ageless position to the matrimony. Although the temple nuptials regulation is non disclosed by the LDS church, the rule and compact behind the regulation is. A compact is an understanding between world and God. The temple compact includes the twosome s promise to stay faithful to each other ; in return the Lord promises that they will be sealed ( married ) together for life and all infinity. LDS members believe that through a temple waterproofing, they can bask each other s company through this life and all infinity. When they pass off, their liquors are still bound by these sacred compacts and their liquors rest together in a religious Eden until the Resurrection. When the Resurrection occurs, their liquors are one time once more reunited with perfect physical organic structures. It is merely done matrimony in the temple that one is able to brood with the Lord in the highest grade of his land. Although matrim ony is held sacred in the 2nd stage of a Hindus life, it does non assure ageless life with their partner and the Lord. When a Hindu twosome joins in the brotherhood of matrimony, they make committednesss to each other, with God as their informant, but do non do a compact with God. There are seven general vows that are made during a Hindu nuptials. The last 1 is as follows: When the bride and the groom take the 7th and the last vow, they promise that they will be true and loyal to each other and will stay comrades and best of friends for their life-time. ( Seven Vows of Marriage ) When they die, they are no longer jump to one another and the rhythm of Karma and re-incarnation Begin once more. This rhythm of birth, life, decease, and re-birth bash non hold with the Mormon beliefs of birth, decease, judgement and ecstasy. In decision, Church of jesus christ of latter-day saintss have different imposts and beliefs sing matrimony compared to members of the Hinduism religion. While they both believe that matrimony is a sacred portion of this life, many more differences exist. Many Hindus believe in ordered matrimonies, while Church of jesus christ of latter-day saintss believe in personally dating and wooing several possible partners before acquiring engaged. The existent nuptials ceremonials of Hindu and Mormon faiths have drastic contrast. Hindus are married under outdoor smashers, openly, and with friends and household nowadays. Their nuptials can last for yearss. In contrast, Church of jesus christ of latter-day saintss are married in temples with merely a few worthy household and friends present. Their nuptials ceremonial merely lasts about 20 proceedingss. Possibly the biggest contrast of Mormon and Hindu matrimonies is their ageless position. Hindus believe that their matrimony will fade out after one spouse dies, and so be reincarnated to a different organic structure and life. Church of jesus christ of latter-day saintss, nevertheless, believe that their partner will be their ageless comrade. They believe that the lone manner to come in into the highest grade of Eden is through a temple matrimony with a worthy spouse. What would you prefer, passing infinity with one spouse or returning clip and once more, each a new experience?

Soviet Bloc Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Soviet Bloc - Essay Example From World War II (WWII), there arise an imposed domestic revolution in Yugoslavia which emerged as a new socialist order that promised something profoundly new to those who lived under it in the form of social equality. However, the Eastern Europe side after emerging from WWII could have the opportunity to represent a greater break with the past than the promise that the elite class or the powerful would be considered low, that those who had been nothing. Even in member states that were economically developed and followed democracy like Czechoslovakia, this embodied a thrust toward egalitarianism and in response Hungary and Poland, given their traditional elitist social orders and yawning gaps between gentry and mass, it meant no less than transformation of the very bases and premises of society. The Soviet elite was a ruling group that could be clearly defined in context with the Western society where there were competing hierarchies based on wealth, political power, professional status, and religious authority. Mawdsley & White (2000) points out that in a society of the Soviet block, it was the regime itself that chose through the appointments system for the people who occupied the highest-ranking positions in government, in the economy, and in public life (Mawdsley & White, 2000: vi). It was clear that those who were chosen as the elite class were also members of the party bodies through which this form of domination was exercised. The main point that arises here is that to what extent according to Soviet block societies were seen as pyramids to answer a question that even for the Soviet case about how far from the vertex the defining line of the elite should be drawn. In looking at the Soviet elite we should consider all members of the Communist Party. Communist Rule and Policies As a world's first socialist state, the Constitution of Soviet Union only allowed a communist rule which was later by some member countries like Hungary, Poland and Yugoslavia introduced elements of market-based reforms before the collapse of the Soviet Union (WB, 2002). As a communist state, it was only possible through Soviet's permission to allow Hungary and the German Democratic Republic (GDR) to find their own future and it was Soviet pressure that encouraged Vietnam to do the same (Segal et al, 1992: 10). However, in many cases Soviet's example was not perceived as it was supposed to be accepted like in the Chinese and North Korea, it was dealt with pessimism but it is fair to say that no matter what happened to reform in the Soviet Union, the fate of the Soviet's revolution was important to all. Economic Performance The former member states never fulfilled revolutionary promises, particularly when they promised equality. Parliamentary democracy was neglected and remained involutorial in the region except in Czechoslovakia, yet subordination to the Communist regimes left less personal or

Retail Business Analysis and Decision-Making Case Study

Retail Business Analysis and Decision-Making - Case Study Example The general strategy was low price but the price elasticity of the product and other factors were taken into consideration in terms of quantity purchased and price set. Product 1 An assessment of the historical trends along with pre-simulation market information revealed that the average demand for the product was 2,590,000 in year 1 and 2,680,000 in year 2. The growth in demand was expected to continue based on the trend in the graph. This was attributed to the fact that product is widely used by all age and income groups in the population. The demand is relatively price inelastic so the level of promotional expenses on the product was relatively less than on the other products. Our team ordered products for two periods in quarter 1 and three periods in quarter 2. This strategy worked fairly well as all inventories carried forward to quarter 3 were sold. Our team’s market share for this product was considered very low. Product 2 Although there is a general upward demand, the pre-simulation market report indicates that this is a discretionary product and that there is a higher level of brand awareness for the product when compared to Product 1. Therefore, demand for the product is based on promotions. ... There was no sale in quarter 1 and so less was ordered for quarters 3 and 4. The price was drastically reduced in quarter 2 and our team was therefore left with no stock on hand as the price was way below the market and suggests that our team was not aware of what the competition was doing. The other two periods saw minimal stock balances on hand at the end of the period. Our market share for this product in quarter 2 was 24.3% which is good when one considers that the market had eight participants. However, quarters 1, 3 and 4 were way below par. Product 3 An analysis of the demand for Product 3 indicates ups and downs in year 1. Year 2 on the other hand showed increases in quarter 2 over quarter 1 and so on up to the 4th quarter with drastic increases of over 50% on the previous quarter. Information obtained reveals that only a narrow segment the population demands this product and that there is a great brand loyalty. This product is a discretionary product and therefore it may sho w dramatic swings based on the economy. However, strong interest tends to prevent this from happening. Since price has an impact on the volume during gift giving periods such as quarter 4 it is best to keep the price at a low price in order to benefit from increased sales volume. Our team sold off all the inventories on hand in quarters 1 and 2 which indicates that too little goods were on hand to satisfy demand. Our market share was average for this product ranging from 15.6% to 12.5%. Product 4 Based on the trends in historic demand for the product it is clear that demand is cyclical with the lowest demand in quarter 1 of each year. Quarter 2 followed by quarter 3 is the period of highest sales with demand in quarter 2 increasing by between four and five

Medical Marijuana Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Medical Marijuana - Essay Example I, therefore, agree with the medical findings on the use of marijuana for medical reasons and the benefits of medical marijuana. The use and legalization of marijuana have led to controversies in the society. These controversies consist of opposing views on medical marijuana; there are those who are in support of its use and legalization and those who are against its use and believe its use should be banned. According to studies done thoroughly by the medical research and studies, the use of marijuana does show positive signs of relief when used in the treatment of various medical illnesses. Diseases such as arthritis, depression, HIV, cancer and other chronic conditions affect a huge percentage of the society’s population today. With no treatment at all or few treatment and cures for these medical conditions, the use of medical marijuana has been a good alternative to alleviate the suffering faced by these people having these illnesses. Marijuana content contains ingredient referred to as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) which is active. After smoking marijuana, this ingredient gives the individual a  "high† feeling. According to the American Cancer Society, the active ingredient in marijuana helps in reducing pain and other cancer symptoms. With these concrete research report, the FDA has agreed on the use of tetrahydrocannabinol in marijuana for therapeutic and medical purposes (Anderson, Hansen, & Rees, 2012). Despite the fact marijuana, use for medical reasons may have positive effects on some medical illnesses and conditions; on the other hand, it also has its negative effects. Most of the population in the society knows that marijuana is an illegal drug. Approximately seventy-eight percent of marijuana users in the society smoke marijuana for recreational purposes as well as personal enjoyment. For this purpose, this drug is made illegal in most countries. The law

Observations of Realists Essay Example for Free

Observations of Realists Essay 1) Are the observations of Realists, such as Hans Morgenthau, accurate in respect to their assessment of the importance of international law in contemporary world politics? Realists such as Hans Morgenthau and more recently Lloyd Gruber, base their theories on the assumption individuals, and hence states, act rationally to protect their own interests, the national interest. They believe states exist in a world of anarchy without an over arching authority. While this may be the case and it certainly is for some states, it is a theory that requires review within the context of the modern world and international law. In the world of bi-polar power during the Cold War, Morgenthau’s views interpreted the global climate accurately, however it is now short sighted in our time of globalization. Multi-National Corporations (MNC), Inter-Governmental Organisations (IGO) and Non-Government Organisations (NGO) play a very large part on the world stage and influence countries, economies and conflicts. Meanwhile younger theories are tending to consider the state and the world’s political climate as a holistic, interactive entity. Increased access to communication, social media and increased global wealth serve to provide an environment for a better financed and informed NGO. Yet even the UN, it’s efficacy being constantly brought into doubt, plays a vital role in establishing norms and standards with the global stakeholders. These developing theories document our planet’s political interaction and development and as such are constantly in a state of change. Sometimes in-sync with current standards such as international law and other times, not. Taking into account realism is one of the more established theories of international relations, we have to also consider the global climate in which the theory was established and compare that to now. Hans Morgenthau was born in Coburg, Germany 1904 and experienced two world worlds. He and his predecessors experienced states as the only actors in world politics. The United Kingdom was exiting her great period of colonisation and was witnessing the unraveling of her empire. Meanwhile Germany was rebuilding and rising in global status. The world was experiencing a transition into industry and moving away from the traditional agriculturally driven economies. Throughout this time, the average person’s existence was more concerned with subsistence. Overseas phone calls and intercontinental travel were beyond the average person’s reach. The importance of setting the scene here is to understand globalisation was in its infancy. To understand this helps to shape the importance other actors in world politics play. Instant communications, the Internet and global travel have made the world a smaller place. Activists, such as Green Peace, can now influence states. So much so, the Rainbow Warrior, Green Peace’s flagship, was sunk by the French spy agency, Directorate-General for External Security (DGSE), in July 1985, killing a photographer. This is an extreme example of NGO influence, yet it cannot be denied that to bomb a civilian ship highlights the pressure Green Peace was placing on the international stage. Realism does not take into account all variables acting upon the state in today’s day and age. When established, realism existed in a time of strong state actors. Today, with the ending of the Cold War that line has blurred, NGOs etc†¦ have filled that void. To understand the motivation behind the establishment of these organisations helps us to understand the influence they have. For instance, Oxfam, Amnesty International and the like have their basis within a moral social consciousness. Therefore, it’s easy to see why theories, such as Social Constructivism, focus on a world shaped by the influences of a nation’s shared beliefs, culture and values. As democracy extends further and nations adopt a capitalist model to fit into the global model, the demands to maintain a balanced, humane society increase. Governments feel this pressure and so, act accordingly. An argument by Social Constructionist such as Barnett and Finnemore is that IGOs have the real power. As I will show later using the US invasion of Iraq, governments still have the final say on their actions, although IGOs, NGOs and MNCs play a very large role in influencing them. Having stated this, one may counter argue this implies it is still a state verses state environment (Realism), however, the world has still evolved into government verses government verses IGOs, NGOs and MNCs, henceforth realism cannot not explain the actions of governments alone and must consider the external influences. Constructivism does so, but places the power into the hands of IGOs and the like. An alternative needs to be sought. Alternatives such as the European Union, which remains â€Å"†¦the most successful experiment in political institution-building since the Second World War. Andrew Moravcsik goes on to say the EU cannot replace or aspire to the democratic status of nation states, yet their role remains embedded in monitoring accountability and extensive checks and balances upon its member states. Emerging actors such as the EU again demonstrate the changing environment and clearly indicate realist theories, must by reconsidered. Focusing on the institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, we can cite several occasions in which their influence has shaped global politics, whether for selfish or selfless motivations. The concept of poverty alleviation was raised by the World Bank during the 1960’s and saw the World Bank â€Å"sell poverty alleviation to members through a mixture of persuasion and coercion. † The Ford Foundation established a report highlighting the successes of poverty alleviation and cited their own programs, many of which were to governmental organizations. The report also stated poverty alleviation programs were ineffectual and implied corruption. Albeit, this report was funded by the Ford Foundation to report on its own programs, yet I was under the impression they were given freedom to report accurately. Even though the Ford Foundation was established by Henry Ford’s son, and not the company itself, it still represents the power and influence a MNC can exert. These reports are not controversial, but it does go towards forming an image about governments and it is in this way influence is exerted. Furthermore, the actions of the Ford Foundation to fund relief programs, brings into question the effectiveness and validity of IGO programs. Probably the largest non-state actor is the United Nations (UN). It’s governance covers many areas of international concern, United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), World Food Program (WFP), United Nations Development Program (UNDP), United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR), United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), etc†¦. As a consequence, its membership is extensive. Whether the member states take their affiliation with the UN and it’s associated bodies seriously or whether they use them as a vehicle for their own means is irrelevant. In either case, the mere existence of this relationship affects the outcomes of global politics. While UN peace keeping missions and other security programs are a subject for debate into the validity of the UN, it cannot be argued that President Bush’s attempts to have the invasion of Iraq sanctioned in 2003 was an attempt to the have the US’s actions deemed as â€Å"right’ within the eyes of the global audience. The fact the US then ignored the UN’s recommendation is irrelevant, the mere attempt to legitimize the US’s actions implies the states are now not the only actors within global politics. This occurrence in itself indicates in itself realism is becoming outdated and the need to consider a more holistic approach. While it can be argued the UN is an Inter-Governmental Organisation (IGO) and is therefore a part or rather a stage for governments to act upon. It must be noted the sovereignty of states, upon which realism is based, does not exist within the UN. The UN is a global entity upon which sovereign states are members, the UN in itself has now physical bounds and by its title, implies the uniting of nations as a common theme. The Neorealist and Structural Realism models may be more applicable in that they balance of power among states is considered in the UN forum, however, true Realist theories, such as those proposed by Morgenthau, are becoming less relevant based upon the increase in non-governmental actors. The development of the Realist theory and subsequent â€Å"neo† theories show a development of thinking and a mark of the time in which they were contrived. These theories cannot be accurate moving into the future as the benchmarks upon which they are based change with the development of the world, it’s technology and it’s people. They can however, allow us to isolate specific elements of global relations, regardless of the time they were developed. I foresee a more holistic approach to global government and non-governmental relationships develop. This will allow us to consider all of the relevant stakeholders while incorporating the best of each perspective, whether it comes from a sociological, economic or political basis. Realist theories are accurate to a degree regarding world politics, however the influence they now hold on international law and global governance has become less. The role of non-state actors, facilitated by the expansion of communications and travel, namely globalization, has given rise to organisations, which previously were unable to exist. Their power varies greatly within the influence they have upon governments of the world, yet they do influence. In a world where the occupants are more aware and hold their respective governments to account for their actions, these nations cannot afford to ignore the influence of the new players in the game.

Pathophysiology of DORV and Surgical Management

Pathophysiology of DORV and Surgical Management Advances in genetic techniques and ability to detect the chromosomal abnormalities in the cellular structures; have had a great impact on the detection of congenital cardiac defects. Although in the past congenital heart diseases have long been recognised as a constituent of complex genetic syndromes, a genetic cause for specific congenital heart diseases has less been apparent; as the sources of these defects has been believed to be multifactoral. In addition, with the advancement of the molecular genetic studies, it has come to light that in many instances, congenital heart diseases exhibit classic Mendelian transmission. It is also possible to trace the direct involvement of a gene with a particular congenital cardiac defect. Tetrology of Fallot has been found to have genetic predisposition, it is estimated that offspring of a parent with tetrology of Fallot is more likely to suffer from the disease in comparison to offsprings whose parents do not suffer from congenital heart disease. Studies estimated that about 1.5% of live births will be affected by tetrology of Fallot if the parents suffer from the defect and about 0.1% will be affected by the presence of tetrology of Fallot if parents do not suffer from congenital heart disease. In comparison in DORV chromosomal abnormalities have only been identified in some cases. In the Baltimore-Washington infant study, DORV was diagnosed in a few patients with downs syndrome and in trisomies 13 and 18, although the incidence was quite low compared with that morphologically similar lesion, tetrology of Fallot. In addition the related conotruncal abnormality, complete transposition of the great arteries, was not found in any patient with trisomy in reported study, this suggests that DORV and transposition of great arteries may be etiologically similar and may be fundamentally different form tetrology of Fallot in terms if developmental mechanism. Also DORV and Transposition of Great arteries are rarely found in patients with CATCH 22 syndromes, although tetrology of Fallot is not uncommon. In a large sample study of patients with conotruncal abnormalities to evaluate the frequency of 22q11 deletions, only 1of 20 patients with DORV as compared to 15.9% of the patients with tetrology of Fallot. The studies have also reported that DORV may be a part of complex CHD in patients with DiGeorge, velocardiofacial and conotruncal anomaly-face syndrome. In a resent animal study it was reported that DORV occur in mouse embryos homozygous for the JMJ mutation, which affects the nuclear protein jmj coded by chamber-specific genes. Surgical Management Surgical management for the DORV and tetrology of Fallot is determined by the anatomy and physiology of the defect as well as the age at which the diagnosis is made and at which the need for surgical intervention arises. Indications for operation are similar to those for defects that lie on each side of the DORV spectrum (VSD, tetralogy of Fallot, and Transposition of great arteries). In addition the presence of associated cardiac defects may modify the approach. In DORV the position of VSD and the presence and severity of pulmonary stenosis are probably the most important considerations. In tetralogy of Fallot most patients have satisfactory systemic arterial oxygenation saturation at birth and require no treatment. However when the oxygen saturation drops below 75-80% operative intervention becomes imperative. Hypoxemic spells may occur from the transient reductions in pulmonary blood flow, due to sudden increase in right ventricular outflow tract obstruction and the decrease in systemic vascular resistance, so a surgical approach takes into consideration the number and location of ventricular septal defects, anatomy and severity of right outflow tract obstruction, coronary artery and aortic arch anatomy and the presence of other cardiac and non cardiac anomalies. Depending on the severity of the cyanosis two types of surgical streams are available. There are two basic possible types of surgical strategies for newborn infants with tetralogy of Fallot. One of the strategies consists of a staged repair; where initial palliation is followed by a complete repair and other one being a complete repair in the neonatal period. Palliative surgical correction, which often does not require the use of cardiopulmonary bypass, is the creation of systemic to pulmonary shunt. This correction is achieved by connecting systemic blood flow source to a the pulmonary blood flow, as already mentioned the main feature of this congenital defect is the reduced flow to the pulmonary system which is the basis of cyanosis. The palliative repair is done by fitting a tubular prosthesis between a systemic artery and a pulmonary artery as shown in the figure (?) (a, b and c). The commonest type of systemic-to-pulmonary arterial shunt is a modified Blalock-Taussig anastomosis which is a communication between a subclavian and pulmonary artery of the same side. Another form of palliative correction is done by creating a connection between ascending or descending aorta and the trunk of pulmonary artery. The connection which connects the posterior ascending aorta to anterior pulmonary trunk is called Waterston shunt and connection bet ween posterior pulmonary artery to anterior descending aorta is called potts shunt. Both of these techniques have there advantages and disadvantages (figure (S) e and f). Figure ( ? ) The most common types of palliative procedures for tetralogy of Fallot. The modified Blalock-Taussig shunt (MBTS) using a Gore-Tex graft either from the right subclavian artery (A) or the right innominate (INN) artery (B). C, A central aortopulmonary shunt using Gore-Tex. D, A right ventricular outflow patch without ventricular septal defect closure. Pathophysiology of DORV Once the anatomic variables of DORV are understood, the various physiologic manifestations become both logical and predictable, at the tetrology end of the DORV spectrum; pathophysiology is similar to that in the tetrology of Fallot. The most important variables determining the physiology of a given heart are the position of the VSD in relation to great arteries, the relation of the great arteries to each other and the presence of associated defects (in particular, outflow tract obstruction). In general patients with large VSD and no pulmonary stenosis or severe pulmonary vascular resistance are not clinically cyanotic. This is because Qp is high and the resultant mixture of blood in the right ventricle has a high enough oxygen saturation to prevent clinically evident cyanosis; however there is some arterial desaturation. Although both great arteries arise from the right ventricle, often incomplete mixing of oxygenated and unoxygenated blood occurs at the ventricular level because of streaming. This streaming of blood within RV is usually determined by the relationship of semilunar valves to the VSD and the position and presence of the infundibular septum. The blood in the great artery most closely related to the VSD and therefore most aligned with LV outflow tract tends to have the highest oxygen saturation. Likewise, the great artery that due to streming, preferentially receives systemic venous return, tends to have a lower saturation. This phenomema is somewhat different from true single ventricle physiology. In DORV with subaortic VSD and no pulmonary stenosis, pulmonary blood flow will be determined by the relationship of pulmonary to systemic vascular resistance. What is usually the case after the first few weeks of life pulmonary vascular resistance is less than systemic vascular resistance, pulmonary blood flow will be greater than systemic flow, resulting in higher than normal pulmonary arterial saturation and congestive heart failure. As the pulmonary vascular resistance increases in response to this abnormal volume load, pulmonary blood flow correspondingly decreases. Eventually, if left untreated, this usually results in pulmonary vascular obstruction disease with severely and irreversible elevated pulmonary vascular resistance, causing progressive cyanosis and early mortality. However if when the VSD is in subaortic position with pulmonary stenosis, whether valvular or subvalvular, obstruction to pulmonary blood flow is found. Conduction System In tetrology of Fallot the sinus and atrioventricular nodes are normal in location, and the bundle of His follows the same general course as in patients with isolated perimembraneous and juxtatricuspid VSDs. Thus it emerges through the right fibrous trigone at the base of the noncoronary cusp of the aortic valve and courses forward toward the papillary muscle of the conus along the inferior VSD margin or slightly to the left side of the defect edge. In addition, hearts which show marked clockwise rotation of the aortic root with overriding, the right trigone is carried more rightward and superiorly and directly into VSD margin. By contrast, the bundle of His does not lie on VSD margin when a muscle ridge is present, since the ridge projects superiorly above the right fibrous trigone. In DORV with concordant AV connections the AV node lies in the usual position in the muscular portion of the AV septum. The bundle of His penetrates the fibrous right trigone of the central body and lies along the posteroinferior margin of the VSD in lesions that are juxtatricuspid wheter the defect is subaortic, doubly committed, or sub-pulmonary. When muscle is interposed between the defect and the tricuspid valve, this muscle protects the bundle, which no longer runs along the posteroinferior free margin of the defect. Oxygenation Hemodynamic representation of Tetrology of Fallot (indicating right to left shunting) Supply of oxygen to the body Due to the mal-alignment and deviation from the normal physiology, the main issue of the patients with tetarology of Fallot is hypoxemia due to inadequate pulmonary blood flow caused by the inadequate pulmonary blood flow, which is determined by the right ventricular pressures and degree of obstruction. Since the right and left ventricular and aortic pressure is equalized, a drop in systemic arterial pressure will result in a reduction in pulmonary blood flow. Oxygen carrying capacity of blood depends mostly on haemoglobin concentration and greater the haemoglobin concentration in the blood that perfuses the lungs, the greater the amount of oxygen extracted per unit of blood flow. In neonates the haemoglobin concentration is relatively high (15 to 18 g/dL), however it drops to about 10 or 12g/dL by 3-4 months after birth. In neonates with tetralogy of Fallot there is an increase in blood level of erythropoietin due to hypoxemia. Iron is required to maintain or increase in haemoglobin levels; however suckling infants have very low stores of iron and food intake in early infancy provides little iron. Therefore there is a high incidence of anaemia in children with tetralogy of Fallot. On the other hand tetraology spectrum of DORV, where the great arteries lie side by side with aorta to the right of pulmonary artery and both semilunar valves lying in the same transverse and coronal plane the physiology is similar to tetralogy of Fallot. In these neonates the VSD is closer to aortic valve thus oxygenated blood form left ventricle is directed to the aorta and the deoxygenated blood is directed to pulmonary artery but the degree of pulmonary stenosis directs portion of deoxygenated blood into aorta. In addition due to the presence of large VSD both ventricles are subjected to similar pressures. Due to the pulmonary stenosis the blood flow to the lungs is restricted causing drop in the pulmonary systolic pressure, which in turn causes hypoxemia. The pulmonary stenosis is most often infundibular, but may be valvular, with or without a small pulmonary valve ring. In doubly committed VSD category of the DORV spectrum the conoventricular septal defect is both subaortic and sub-pulmonary owing significant conal septal mal-development and mal-position. The hemodynamics change in that case will also be determined by the presence or absence of subaortic or sub-pulmonary stenosis. Therefore cases with sub-pulmonary stenosis will have reduction in the pulmonary blood flow and will result in the hypoxemia and thereby cyanosis corresponding physiological characteristics of tetralogy of Fallot. Also in cases of non-committed DORV majority of great vessels arise form right ventricle thus right ventricle is subjected both pulmonary and aortic circulation resistance. Oxygenated blood form left ventricle gets mixed with non-oxygenated blood through VSD making systemic and pulmonary circulation equal. In addition due to left and right shunting right ventricle is volume overloaded and results in congestive heart failure. Additionally, the stimulation for the formation of red cells continues and very high counts of red cells are achieved, but the cells are microcytic and hypochromic, since the average corpuscle volume and average corpuscle haemoglobin are markedly reduced. Also the rise above 60% increases the blood viscosity. This raised viscosity of blood leads to greater resistance to flow through the tissues and ultimately capacity to transport oxygen vanishes. In transposition spectrum of DORV the physiology is different then described above, since the presence of large sub-pulmonary VSD and its commitment to the pulmonary artery; the course of circulation is dependent on the afterload on each ventricle, as shunting could occur in either direction. In this type of defect the oxygen saturation in the pulmonary artery is higher than in systemic circulation. The high oxygen saturation of pulmonary arterial blood will however decrease the pulmonary vascular resistance and consequently will result in right to left shunting during systole. This will result in some decrease in PO2 of blood distributed to the lungs as well as through ductus arteriosus. On the other hand during diastole a larger volume of blood will return from the pulmonary veins to the left atrium and ventricle and thus results in a left to right shunting. As a result, the oxygen saturation of the blood going to systemic circulation is increased and thus tends to limit the abnorm al decrease in the upper body PO2. A characteristic of this defect is the presence of a large unrestrictive VSD with which the mixing of pulmonary and systemic blood takes. This phenomena result in a relatively large pulmonary to systemic blood flow ratio and consequently high systemic oxygen concentrations; therefore limiting the tissue hypoxia. However the inability of the ventricles to maintain the physiological normal pressures cardiac failure is often associated in infants with transposition spectrum of DORV. Infants with this type of physiology usually appear with mild cyanosis and in congestive heart failure. In addition if there is effective mixing but pulmonary flow is reduced by the presence of pulmonary stenosis or increased pulmonary vascular resistance, pulmonary to systemic flow ratio decreases and arterial saturations will be lower and subsequently will result in tetrology of Fallot type pathophysiology. Right to Left Shunts. Now just for a moment let us consider a large VSD assocoiated with pulmonary valve stenosis which is severe enough to have a resistance greater than systemic vascular resistance. Just like the last case, this ratio of resistances results in reversal of the shunt. This is in fact an unusual combination, but the point here is that the situation mimics the haemodynamics of tetralogy of Fallot. Also it shows how associated pulmonary stenosis can have a great influence on cardiac malformations on many sorts. We will meet it again in the commom mixing situations. On the other hand with no pulmonary stenosis look at the difference Right to Left Shunts. I am making a morphological point here: tetralogy of Fallot is not a coincidence of pulmonary stenosis and VSD but the consequence of right ventricular outflow tract and central pulmonary artery hypoplasia. The diagram can be adjusted to accentuate this, as above. Tetralogy has a variable and sometimes spasmodic stenosis of the muscular right ventricular outflow tract. Sometimes, particularly early in life, the degree of obstruction is not great and the infant may present with signs of a VSD shunting left to right. Qp:Qs (Ratios Pulmonary to systemic Ratios) Double outlet Right ventricle hemodynamic representation (DORV -Common mixing) In many cases of complex congenital cardiac disease it can be quite difficult to understand how the degree of systemic desaturation reflects the flows in malformed heart. It helps to realise that many of them fall into this group of common mixing circulation, which is to say that all pulmonary and systemic venous blood streams are obliged to come together at some point in the circulation. They are: Totally anomalous pulmonary venous drainage. Univentricular heart. Double outlet right or left ventricle. All simple valve atresias. Fallot pulmonary atresia. Truncus arteriosus. And any of the above in combination with any other defect. If there is complete mixing of the systemic and pulmonary returns, it follows that pulmonary and systemic arterial saturation will be identical. Due to streaming effects, the mixing may not be quite complete but the saturations will still be nearly identical. This all means that some degree of systemic desaturation will be present. The degree of cyanosis is dictated by the ratio of pulmonary to systemic flow as shown in the figure above, in which Qp is pulmonary flow and Qs is systemic. Often, particularly in the univentricular heart and in the double outlet ventricles, it is asssociated pumonary stenosis which determines the ratio of Qp to Qs. Some patients with a Qp high enough to keep systemic saturation above 94% or so will not be clinically cyanosed. Time and space do not allow a full descrtiption of all the pathologies so we will take one example, double outlet right ventricle. Double outlet right ventricle is a good example of the haemodynamic variability of this group. The figure above shows the circulation in a case where there is a large ventricular septal defect, no pulmonary stenosis and no significant rise in the pulmonary vascular resistance. Pulmonary blood flow is elevated and the radiograph will show plethora. The high ratio between pulmonary and systemic venous return means that the saturation of the mixed flow, and therefore of the aortic blood, is 90%, which is barely detectable clinically as cyanosis INTRODUCTION  Ã‚  In 1888, Etienne-Louis Arthur Fallot described three cyanotic patients with four similar anatomic features [1]: Stenosis of the pulmonary artery Intraventricular communication Deviation of the origin of the aorta to the right Concentric right ventricular hypertrophy This constellation of findings has since become known as tetralogy of Fallot (TOF). The prevalence of TOF in the United States is about 3.9 per 10,000 live births [2]. This defect accounts for about 7 to 10 percent of cases of congenital heart disease and is one of the most common congenital heart lesions requiring intervention in the first year of life [3]. TOF occurs equally in males and females [4]. The pathophysiology, clinical features, and diagnosis of TOF will be reviewed here. An overview of the management of this disorder, including postoperative complications and issues related to pregnancy, are discussed separately. (See Overview of the management of tetralogy of Fallot.) ANATOMY  Ã‚  The exact embryologic abnormality that accounts for TOF is unknown. What is recognized is that during development, there is anterior and cephalad deviation of the infundibular septum. This results in a malaligned ventricular septal defect (VSD), with the aortic root overriding the defect and leading to subsequent right ventricular outflow obstruction (figure 1). The ensuing right ventricular hypertrophy is thought to be a response to the large VSD and right ventricular outflow obstruction with resultant systemic right ventricular systolic pressure. Ventricular septal defect  Ã‚  The VSD in TOF is most commonly a single large malaligned subaortic defect located in the perimembranous region of the septum (picture 1). The VSD can extend into the muscular septum. There are rarely other muscular ventricular septal defects. (See Pathophysiology and clinical features of isolated ventricular septal defects in infants and children.) Right ventricular outflow obstruction  Ã‚  The right ventricular outflow obstruction is often at multiple levels (picture 2): The anterior and cephalad deviation of the infundibular septum results in subvalvar obstruction Hypertrophy of muscular bands in this region can further accentuate subvalvar obstruction The pulmonary valve annulus is usually hypoplastic, although in some instances it is of normal size The pulmonary valve itself is frequently bicuspid and stenotic In addition, it is not uncommon to identify an area of supravalvar narrowing in the main pulmonary artery at the sinotubular ridge. There may also be further obstruction at the branch pulmonary arteries. These may be diffusely hypoplastic or have focal areas of stenosis, most commonly at the proximal branch pulmonary arteries. The proximal left pulmonary artery near the site of ductal insertion is a frequent location for stenosis (picture 3A-B). Overriding aorta  Ã‚  Overriding aorta is a congenital anomaly, in which the aorta is displaced to the right over the VSD rather than the left ventricle. This results in blood flow from both ventricles into the aorta. The degree of aortic override of the VSD can vary widely and is one of the major factors used by some groups to differentiate between TOF and double outlet right ventricle. If one defines double outlet right ventricle as the presence of aortic/mitral valve fibrous continuity, then the degree of override is not relevant to diagnosis. If, however, one defines double outlet right ventricle as a condition with greater than 50 percent aortic override, then, by definition, the degree of aortic override in TOF is limited. Associated cardiac features  Ã‚  There are a number of frequently associated anatomic features that are important to look for when evaluating a patient with TOF, since they affect therapy. Associated cardiac anomalies occur in about 40 percent of patients with TOF. Approximately 25 percent of patients have a right aortic arch. This is particularly important to identify if one is contemplating a palliative shunt. Abnormalities of the coronary arteries, such as the left anterior descending arising from the right coronary artery, are seen in about 9 percent of patients [5]. These are important to identify prior to complete repair, since the course of the artery may run directly across the right ventricular outflow tract; inadvertent transection could have catastrophic consequences. Occasionally, patients have significant aorticopulmonary collateral vessels that may require attention prior to or at the time of surgery. A patent ductus arteriosus, multiple ventricular defects, and complete atrioventricular septal defects may be present. Infrequently, aortic valve regurgitation is present due to aortic cusp prolapse. GENETIC FACTORS  Ã‚  Although TOF may present as part of a known syndrome, this lesion typically occurs sporadically without other anomalies. Surveys of patients with nonsyndromic TOF have reported the following genetic abnormalities: In one study of 114 patients with nonsyndromal TOF, 4 percent of patients had mutations in transcription factor NKX2.5., which appears to have a role in cardiac development [6]. In genome-wide surveys of patients with nonsyndromic TOF and their parents, de novo copy number variants were estimated to be present in about 10 percent of sporadic cases of TOF compared to less than 0.1 percent in controls at several chromosomal locations [7]. Tetralogy of Fallot has also been reported in association with mutations in TBX1 and ZFPM2 [8-10]. Further investigation is required to determine the role of these mutations in the evolution of Tetralogy of Fallot. Approximately 15 percent of patients with TOF present with associated syndromes, including Down syndrome (trisomy 21), Alagille syndrome (mutations in Jagged1), and DiGeorge and velocardiofacial syndromes (deletion on chromosome 22q11) [8,11-17]. There may be susceptibility genes for TOF within the latter region of chromosome 22q11 in children without extracardiac anomalies [16,18,19], and 22q11.2 deletion syndrome is unrecognized in many adult patients with TOF [20]. (See DiGeorge syndrome: Pathogenesis, epidemiology, and clinical manifestations  and Inherited disorders associated with conjugated hyperbilirubinemia, section on Alagille syndrome.) PATHOPHYSIOLOGY  Ã‚  The physiologic consequences of TOF are largely dependent upon the degree of right ventricular outflow obstruction. Since the VSD is typically large and unrestrictive, the pressure in the right ventricle reflects that of the left ventricle. As a result, the direction of blood flow across the VSD will be determined by the path of least resistance for blood flow, not by the size of the VSD. If the resistance to blood flow across the obstructed right ventricular outflow tract is less than the resistance to flow out of the aorta into the systemic circulation, blood will naturally shunt from the left ventricle to the right ventricle and into the pulmonary bed. In this situation, there is predominately a left-to-right shunt and the patient will be acyanotic. As the degree of right ventricular outflow obstruction increases, the resistance to blood flow into the pulmonary bed also increases. If the right ventricular obstruction is significant enough to increase resistance, it will be easier for blood to cross the VSD from the right ventricle into the left ventricle and go out the aorta, which now becomes the path of least resistance. This right-to-left shunt across the VSD will result in a large volume of desaturated blood entering the systemic circulation and cyanosis and polycythemia will ensue (figure 1). One of the physiologic characteristics of TOF is that the right ventricular outflow obstruction can fluctuate. An individual with minimal cyanosis can develop a dynamic increase in right ventricular outflow tract obstruction with a subsequent increase in right-to-left shunt and the development of cyanosis. In the most dramatic situation, there can be near occlusion of the right ventricular outflow tract with profound cyanosis. These episodes are often referred to as tet spells or hypercyanotic spells. The exact etiology of these episodes is unclear, although there have been a number of proposed mechanisms, including increased infundibular contractility, peripheral vasodilatation, hyperventilation, and stimulation of right ventricular mechanoreceptors [21]. CLINICAL PRESENTATION  Ã‚  The clinical presentation of the patient with TOF is dependent upon the degree of right ventricular outflow obstruction: Children with severe obstruction and inadequate pulmonary flow typically present in the immediate newborn period with profound cyanosis Children with moderate obstruction and balanced pulmonary and systemic flow may be noticed during elective evaluation for a murmur Children with minimal obstruction may present with pulmonary overcirculation and heart failure Most children with this lesion are symptomatic and cyanotic; there is a subgroup, however, with typical morphology and hemodynamics that remains clinically asymptomatic for a period of time (pink variant). In general, the earlier the onset of systemic hypoxemia, the more likely it is that severe pulmonary outflow tract stenosis or atresia is present. Physical examination  Ã‚  On inspection, individuals with TOF are usually comfortable and in no distress. However, during hypercyanotic spells, they will become hyperpneic, and infants will often become agitated. If cyanosis is present, it is most easily seen in the nail beds and lips. On palpation, one may appreciate a prominent right ventricular impulse and occasionally a systolic thrill. Hepatomegaly is uncommon. Peripheral pulses are usually normal, although the presence of prominent pulses may suggest the existence of a significant patent ductus arteriosus or aorticopulmonary collaterals. Cardiac auscultation  Ã‚  On auscultation, the first heart sound is normal, and the second heart sound is most commonly single because the pulmonic component is rarely audible. Third and fourth heart sounds are uncommon. An early systolic click along the left sternal border may be heard, which is thought to be due to flow into the dilated ascending aorta. (See Auscultation of heart sounds.) Murmur  Ã‚  The murmur in TOF is due primarily to the right ventricular outflow obstruction, not the VSD. The murmur is typically crescendo-decrescendo with a harsh systolic ejection quality; it is appreciated best along the left mid to upper sternal border with radiation posteriorly. It can, however, have a more regurgitant quality that can be easily mistaken for a VSD. (See Auscultation of cardiac murmurs.) The murmur is due both to the degree of obstruction and to the amount of flow across the obstruction. In TOF, unlike isolated valvar pulmonary stenosis, the amount of flow across the right ventricular outflow tract will decrease as the obstruction increases, due to the shunting of blood right-to-left across the VSD. Thus, as the obstruction increases, the murmur will become softer. During severe hypercyanotic spells, the murmur may actually disappear due to the markedly diminished flow across the obstruction.